building_data_management_systems.Xuanzhou.2024Fall.DaSE
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leveldb_base


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								<title>Leveldb</title>

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								<h1>Leveldb</h1>

								<address>Jeff Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat</address>

								<p>

								The <code>leveldb</code> library provides a persistent key value store.  Keys and

								values are arbitrary byte arrays.  The keys are ordered within the key

								value store according to a user-specified comparator function.


								<p>

								<h1>Opening A Database</h1>

								<p>

								A <code>leveldb</code> database has a name which corresponds to a file system

								directory.  All of the contents of database are stored in this

								directory.  The following example shows how to open a database,

								creating it if necessary:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  #include &lt;assert&gt;

								  #include "leveldb/include/db.h"


								  leveldb::DB* db;

								  leveldb::Options options;

								  options.create_if_missing = true;

								  leveldb::Status status = leveldb::DB::Open(options, "/tmp/testdb", &amp;db);

								  assert(status.ok());

								  ...

								</pre>

								If you want to raise an error if the database already exists, add

								the following line before the <code>leveldb::DB::Open</code> call:

								<pre>

								  options.error_if_exists = true;

								</pre>

								<h1>Status</h1>

								<p>

								You may have noticed the <code>leveldb::Status</code> type above.  Values of this

								type are returned by most functions in <code>leveldb</code> that may encounter an

								error.  You can check if such a result is ok, and also print an

								associated error message:

								<p>

								<pre>

								   leveldb::Status s = ...;

								   if (!s.ok()) cerr &lt;&lt; s.ToString() &lt;&lt; endl;

								</pre>

								<h1>Closing A Database</h1>

								<p>

								When you are done with a database, just delete the database object.

								Example:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  ... open the db as described above ...

								  ... do something with db ...

								  delete db;

								</pre>

								<h1>Reads And Writes</h1>

								<p>

								The database provides <code>Put</code>, <code>Delete</code>, and <code>Get</code> methods to

								modify/query the database.  For example, the following code

								moves the value stored under key1 to key2.

								<pre>

								  std::string value;

								  leveldb::Status s = db-&gt;Get(leveldb::ReadOptions(), key1, &amp;value);

								  if (s.ok()) s = db-&gt;Put(leveldb::WriteOptions(), key2, value);

								  if (s.ok()) s = db-&gt;Delete(leveldb::WriteOptions(), key1);

								</pre>


								<h1>Atomic Updates</h1>

								<p>

								Note that if the process dies after the Put of key2 but before the

								delete of key1, the same value may be left stored under multiple keys.

								Such problems can be avoided by using the <code>WriteBatch</code> class to

								atomically apply a set of updates:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  #include "leveldb/include/write_batch.h"

								  ...

								  std::string value;

								  leveldb::Status s = db-&gt;Get(leveldb::ReadOptions(), key1, &amp;value);

								  if (s.ok()) {

								    leveldb::WriteBatch batch;

								    batch.Delete(key1);

								    batch.Put(key2, value);

								    s = db-&gt;Write(leveldb::WriteOptions(), &amp;batch);

								  }

								</pre>

								The <code>WriteBatch</code> holds a sequence of edits to be made to the database,

								and these edits within the batch are applied in order.  Note that we

								called <code>Delete</code> before <code>Put</code> so that if <code>key1</code> is identical to <code>key2</code>,

								we do not end up erroneously dropping the value entirely.

								<p>

								Apart from its atomicity benefits, <code>WriteBatch</code> may also be used to

								speed up bulk updates by placing lots of individual mutations into the

								same batch.


								<h1>Synchronous Writes</h1>

								By default, each write to <code>leveldb</code> is asynchronous: it

								returns after pushing the write from the process into the operating

								system.  The transfer from operating system memory to the underlying

								persistent storage happens asynchronously.  The <code>sync</code> flag

								can be turned on for a particular write to make the write operation

								not return until the data being written has been pushed all the way to

								persistent storage.  (On Posix systems, this is implemented by calling

								either <code>fsync(...)</code> or <code>fdatasync(...)</code> or

								<code>msync(..., MS_SYNC)</code> before the write operation returns.)

								<pre>

								  leveldb::WriteOptions write_options;

								  write_options.sync = true;

								  db-&gt;Put(write_options, ...);

								</pre>

								Asynchronous writes are often more than a thousand times as fast as

								synchronous writes.  The downside of asynchronous writes is that a

								crash of the machine may cause the last few updates to be lost.  Note

								that a crash of just the writing process (i.e., not a reboot) will not

								cause any loss since even when <code>sync</code> is false, an update

								is pushed from the process memory into the operating system before it

								is considered done.


								<p>

								Asynchronous writes can often be used safely.  For example, when

								loading a large amount of data into the database you can handle lost

								updates by restarting the bulk load after a crash.  A hybrid scheme is

								also possible where every Nth write is synchronous, and in the event

								of a crash, the bulk load is restarted just after the last synchronous

								write finished by the previous run.  (The synchronous write can update

								a marker that describes where to restart on a crash.)


								<p>

								<code>WriteBatch</code> provides an alternative to asynchronous writes.

								Multiple updates may be placed in the same <code>WriteBatch</code> and

								applied together using a synchronous write (i.e.,

								<code>write_options.sync</code> is set to true).  The extra cost of

								the synchronous write will be amortized across all of the writes in

								the batch.


								<p>

								<h1>Concurrency</h1>

								<p>

								A database may only be opened by one process at a time.

								The <code>leveldb</code> implementation acquires a lock from the

								operating system to prevent misuse.  Within a single process, the

								same <code>leveldb::DB</code> object may be safely shared by multiple

								concurrent threads.  I.e., different threads may write into or fetch

								iterators or call <code>Get</code> on the same database without any

								external synchronization (the leveldb implementation will

								automatically do the required synchronization).  However other objects

								(like Iterator and WriteBatch) may require external synchronization.

								If two threads share such an object, they must protect access to it

								using their own locking protocol.  More details are available in

								the public header files.

								<p>

								<h1>Iteration</h1>

								<p>

								The following example demonstrates how to print all key,value pairs

								in a database.

								<p>

								<pre>

								  leveldb::Iterator* it = db-&gt;NewIterator(leveldb::ReadOptions());

								  for (it-&gt;SeekToFirst(); it-&gt;Valid(); it-&gt;Next()) {

								    cout &lt;&lt; it-&gt;key().ToString() &lt;&lt; ": "  &lt;&lt; it-&gt;value().ToString() &lt;&lt; endl;

								  }

								  assert(it-&gt;status().ok());  // Check for any errors found during the scan

								  delete it;

								</pre>

								The following variation shows how to process just the keys in the

								range <code>[start,limit)</code>:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  for (it-&gt;Seek(start);

								       it-&gt;Valid() &amp;&amp; it-&gt;key().ToString() &lt; limit;

								       it-&gt;Next()) {

								    ...

								  }

								</pre>

								You can also process entries in reverse order.  (Caveat: reverse

								iteration may be somewhat slower than forward iteration.)

								<p>

								<pre>

								  for (it-&gt;SeekToLast(); it-&gt;Valid(); it-&gt;Prev()) {

								    ...

								  }

								</pre>

								<h1>Snapshots</h1>

								<p>

								Snapshots provide consistent read-only views over the entire state of

								the key-value store.  <code>ReadOptions::snapshot</code> may be non-NULL to indicate

								that a read should operate on a particular version of the DB state.

								If <code>ReadOptions::snapshot</code> is NULL, the read will operate on an

								implicit snapshot of the current state.

								<p>

								Snapshots typically are created by the DB::GetSnapshot() method:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  leveldb::ReadOptions options;

								  options.snapshot = db-&gt;GetSnapshot();

								  ... apply some updates to db ...

								  leveldb::Iterator* iter = db-&gt;NewIterator(options);

								  ... read using iter to view the state when the snapshot was created ...

								  delete iter;

								  db-&gt;ReleaseSnapshot(options.snapshot);

								</pre>

								Note that when a snapshot is no longer needed, it should be released

								using the DB::ReleaseSnapshot interface.  This allows the

								implementation to get rid of state that was being maintained just to

								support reading as of that snapshot.

								<p>

								A Write operation can also return a snapshot that

								represents the state of the database just after applying a particular

								set of updates:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  leveldb::Snapshot* snapshot;

								  leveldb::WriteOptions write_options;

								  write_options.post_write_snapshot = &amp;snapshot;

								  leveldb::Status status = db-&gt;Write(write_options, ...);

								  ... perform other mutations to db ...


								  leveldb::ReadOptions read_options;

								  read_options.snapshot = snapshot;

								  leveldb::Iterator* iter = db-&gt;NewIterator(read_options);

								  ... read as of the state just after the Write call returned ...

								  delete iter;


								  db-&gt;ReleaseSnapshot(snapshot);

								</pre>

								<h1>Slice</h1>

								<p>

								The return value of the <code>it->key()</code> and <code>it->value()</code> calls above

								are instances of the <code>leveldb::Slice</code> type.  <code>Slice</code> is a simple

								structure that contains a length and a pointer to an external byte

								array.  Returning a <code>Slice</code> is a cheaper alternative to returning a

								<code>std::string</code> since we do not need to copy potentially large keys and

								values.  In addition, <code>leveldb</code> methods do not return null-terminated

								C-style strings since <code>leveldb</code> keys and values are allowed to

								contain '\0' bytes.

								<p>

								C++ strings and null-terminated C-style strings can be easily converted

								to a Slice:

								<p>

								<pre>

								   leveldb::Slice s1 = "hello";


								   std::string str("world");

								   leveldb::Slice s2 = str;

								</pre>

								A Slice can be easily converted back to a C++ string:

								<pre>

								   std::string str = s1.ToString();

								   assert(str == std::string("hello"));

								</pre>

								Be careful when using Slices since it is up to the caller to ensure that

								the external byte array into which the Slice points remains live while

								the Slice is in use.  For example, the following is buggy:

								<p>

								<pre>

								   leveldb::Slice slice;

								   if (...) {

								     std::string str = ...;

								     slice = str;

								   }

								   Use(slice);

								</pre>

								When the <code>if</code> statement goes out of scope, <code>str</code> will be destroyed and the

								backing storage for <code>slice</code> will disappear.

								<p>

								<h1>Comparators</h1>

								<p>

								The preceding examples used the default ordering function for key,

								which orders bytes lexicographically.  You can however supply a custom

								comparator when opening a database.  For example, suppose each

								database key consists of two numbers and we should sort by the first

								number, breaking ties by the second number.  First, define a proper

								subclass of <code>leveldb::Comparator</code> that expresses these rules:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  class TwoPartComparator : public leveldb::Comparator {

								   public:

								    // Three-way comparison function:

								    //   if a &lt; b: negative result

								    //   if a &gt; b: positive result

								    //   else: zero result

								    int Compare(const leveldb::Slice&amp; a, const leveldb::Slice&amp; b) const {

								      int a1, a2, b1, b2;

								      ParseKey(a, &amp;a1, &amp;a2);

								      ParseKey(b, &amp;b1, &amp;b2);

								      if (a1 &lt; b1) return -1;

								      if (a1 &gt; b1) return +1;

								      if (a2 &lt; b2) return -1;

								      if (a2 &gt; b2) return +1;

								      return 0;

								    }


								    // Ignore the following methods for now:

								    const char* Name() { return "TwoPartComparator"; }

								    void FindShortestSeparator(std::string*, const leveldb::Slice&amp;) const { }

								    void FindShortSuccessor(std::string*) const { }

								  };

								</pre>

								Now create a database using this custom comparator:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  TwoPartComparator cmp;

								  leveldb::DB* db;

								  leveldb::Options options;

								  options.create_if_missing = true;

								  options.comparator = &amp;cmp;

								  leveldb::Status status = leveldb::DB::Open(options, "/tmp/testdb", &amp;db);

								  ...

								</pre>

								<h2>Backwards compatibility</h2>

								<p>

								The result of the comparator's <code>Name</code> method is attached to the

								database when it is created, and is checked on every subsequent

								database open.  If the name changes, the <code>leveldb::DB::Open</code> call will

								fail.  Therefore, change the name if and only if the new key format

								and comparison function are incompatible with existing databases, and

								it is ok to discard the contents of all existing databases.

								<p>

								You can however still gradually evolve your key format over time with

								a little bit of pre-planning.  For example, you could store a version

								number at the end of each key (one byte should suffice for most uses).

								When you wish to switch to a new key format (e.g., adding an optional

								third part to the keys processed by <code>TwoPartComparator</code>),

								(a) keep the same comparator name (b) increment the version number

								for new keys (c) change the comparator function so it uses the

								version numbers found in the keys to decide how to interpret them.

								<p>

								<h1>Performance</h1>

								<p>

								Performance can be tuned by changing the default values of the

								types defined in <code>leveldb/include/options.h</code>.


								<p>

								<h2>Block size</h2>

								<p>

								<code>leveldb</code> groups adjacent keys together into the same block and such a

								block is the unit of transfer to and from persistent storage.  The

								default block size is approximately 4096 uncompressed bytes.

								Applications that mostly do bulk scans over the contents of the

								database may wish to increase this size.  Applications that do a lot

								of point reads of small values may wish to switch to a smaller block

								size if performance measurements indicate an improvement.  There isn't

								much benefit in using blocks smaller than one kilobyte, or larger than

								a few megabytes.  Also note that compression will be more effective

								with larger block sizes.

								<p>

								<h2>Compression</h2>

								<p>

								Each block is individually compressed before being written to

								persistent storage.  Compression is on by default since the default

								compression method is very fast, and is automatically disabled for

								uncompressible data.  In rare cases, applications may want to disable

								compression entirely, but should only do so if benchmarks show a

								performance improvement:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  leveldb::Options options;

								  options.compression = leveldb::kNoCompression;

								  ... leveldb::DB::Open(options, name, ...) ....

								</pre>

								<h2>Cache</h2>

								<p>

								The contents of the database are stored in a set of files in the

								filesystem and each file stores a sequence of compressed blocks.  If

								<code>options.cache</code> is non-NULL, it is used to cache frequently used

								uncompressed block contents.

								<p>

								<pre>

								  #include "leveldb/include/cache.h"


								  leveldb::Options options;

								  options.cache = leveldb::NewLRUCache(100 * 1048576);  // 100MB cache

								  leveldb::DB* db;

								  leveldb::DB::Open(options, name, &db);

								  ... use the db ...

								  delete db

								  delete options.cache;

								</pre>

								Note that the cache holds uncompressed data, and therefore it should

								be sized according to application level data sizes, without any

								reduction from compression.  (Caching of compressed blocks is left to

								the operating system buffer cache, or any custom <code>Env</code>

								implementation provided by the client.)

								<p>

								When performing a bulk read, the application may wish to disable

								caching so that the data processed by the bulk read does not end up

								displacing most of the cached contents.  A per-iterator option can be

								used to achieve this:

								<p>

								<pre>

								  leveldb::ReadOptions options;

								  options.fill_cache = false;

								  leveldb::Iterator* it = db-&gt;NewIterator(options);

								  for (it-&gt;SeekToFirst(); it-&gt;Valid(); it-&gt;Next()) {

								    ...

								  }

								</pre>

								<h2>Key Layout</h2>

								<p>

								Note that the unit of disk transfer and caching is a block.  Adjacent

								keys (according to the database sort order) will usually be placed in

								the same block.  Therefore the application can improve its performance

								by placing keys that are accessed together near each other and placing

								infrequently used keys in a separate region of the key space.

								<p>

								For example, suppose we are implementing a simple file system on top

								of <code>leveldb</code>.  The types of entries we might wish to store are:

								<p>

								<pre>

								   filename -&gt; permission-bits, length, list of file_block_ids

								   file_block_id -&gt; data

								</pre>

								We might want to prefix <code>filename</code> keys with one letter (say '/') and the

								<code>file_block_id</code> keys with a different letter (say '0') so that scans

								over just the metadata do not force us to fetch and cache bulky file

								contents.

								<p>

								<h1>Checksums</h1>

								<p>

								<code>leveldb</code> associates checksums with all data it stores in the file system.

								There are two separate controls provided over how aggressively these

								checksums are verified:

								<p>

								<ul>

								<li> <code>ReadOptions::verify_checksums</code> may be set to true to force

								  checksum verification of all data that is read from the file system on

								  behalf of a particular read.  By default, no such verification is

								  done.

								<p>

								<li> <code>Options::paranoid_checks</code> may be set to true before opening a

								  database to make the database implementation raise an error as soon as

								  it detects an internal corruption.  Depending on which portion of the

								  database has been corrupted, the error may be raised when the database

								  is opened, or later by another database operation.  By default,

								  paranoid checking is off so that the database can be used even if

								  parts of its persistent storage have been corrupted.

								<p>

								  If a database is corrupted (perhaps it cannot be opened when

								  paranoid checking is turned on), the <code>leveldb::RepairDB</code> function

								  may be used to recover as much of the data as possible

								<p>

								</ul>

								<h1>Approximate Sizes</h1>

								<p>

								The <code>GetApproximateSizes</code> method can used to get the approximate

								number of bytes of file system space used by one or more key ranges.

								<p>

								<pre>

								   leveldb::Range ranges[2];

								   ranges[0] = leveldb::Range("a", "c");

								   ranges[1] = leveldb::Range("x", "z");

								   uint64_t sizes[2];

								   leveldb::Status s = db-&gt;GetApproximateSizes(ranges, 2, sizes);

								</pre>

								The preceding call will set <code>sizes[0]</code> to the approximate number of

								bytes of file system space used by the key range <code>[a..c)</code> and

								<code>sizes[1]</code> to the approximate number of bytes used by the key range

								<code>[x..z)</code>.

								<p>

								<h1>Environment</h1>

								<p>

								All file operations (and other operating system calls) issued by the

								<code>leveldb</code> implementation are routed through a <code>leveldb::Env</code> object.

								Sophisticated clients may wish to provide their own <code>Env</code>

								implementation to get better control.  For example, an application may

								introduce artificial delays in the file IO paths to limit the impact

								of <code>leveldb</code> on other activities in the system.

								<p>

								<pre>

								  class SlowEnv : public leveldb::Env {

								    .. implementation of the Env interface ...

								  };


								  SlowEnv env;

								  leveldb::Options options;

								  options.env = &amp;env;

								  Status s = leveldb::DB::Open(options, ...);

								</pre>

								<h1>Porting</h1>

								<p>

								<code>leveldb</code> may be ported to a new platform by providing platform

								specific implementations of the types/methods/functions exported by

								<code>leveldb/port/port.h</code>.  See <code>leveldb/port/port_example.h</code> for more

								details.

								<p>

								In addition, the new platform may need a new default <code>leveldb::Env</code>

								implementation.  See <code>leveldb/util/env_posix.h</code> for an example.


								<h1>Other Information</h1>


								<p>

								Details about the <code>leveldb</code> implementation may be found in

								the following documents:

								<ul>

								<li> <a href="impl.html">Implementation notes</a>

								<li> <a href="table_format.txt">Format of an immutable Table file</a>

								<li> <a href="log_format.txt">Format of a log file</a>

								</ul>


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